Problematika péče o lesy v okolí hl. m. Prahy s ohledem na jejich funkční využívání

Literatura k tématu příměstských lesů od roku 2000

Následuje uspořádaný výběr citací ze světové literatury ke klíčovým slovům "urban forest" a "urban forestry". Každá citace je doplněna seznamem všech klíčových slov a abstraktem práce.

Arnold,M.A. (2005). Challenges and benefits of transplanting large trees: An introduction to the workshop. Horttechnology, 15(1): 115-117.

Keywords: arboriculture; landscape establishment; landscape maintenance; post-transplant establishment; tree establishment; tree mortality; urban forestry

Across horticultural crops the trend is to transplant larger plants to achieve the intended landscape effects or to produce the desired yield without the long wait associated with direct seeding or small transplant technology. Consumers want immediate gratification (a landscape design that produces the desired aesthetics without the wait for plants to grow to mature sizes). This trend extends from the use of large herbaceous plants for instant landscape color, transplanting of vegetable plants already in fruit to the home garden for early yield, to transplanting larger shrubs and trees to effect the impression of an established landscape. This trend logically culminates in the transplanting of large, mature specimen trees to create the appearance of a fully mature landscape. This workshop will explore the potential benefits of this approach and the challenges associated with successful transplanting of large trees.

Attwell,K. (2000). Urban land resources and urban planting - case studies from Denmark. Landscape Urban Plan, 52, 145-163.

Keywords: urban planning; urban ecology; urban planting; urban forestry; land resources; habitat quality; RECOVERY

Trees benefit urban communities environmentally. esthetically and recreationally. This raises the question of whether Denmark's towns have enough space for more trees. A research project investigated this by examining in detail the potential for more sustainable planning and management of urban green space in towns with 10,000-40,000 inhabitants and was completed in 1999. The paper describes the vegetation cover in selected urban areas, including the cover of woody vegetation (trees and shrubs) and discusses the land area potentially available for supplementary planting in urban zones. The method used to map urban vegetation is discussed and related to Denmark's administrative practice and planning system. Case studies are presented for various categories of urban land use to highlight the variation in vegetation cover and to identify the land area available for increasing tree cover. Apart from undeveloped urban land, the largest areas potentially available for planting included industrial zones, institutional zones and apartment complexes. Other types of residential district lacked the coherent space normally required for sustainable planting. The cover of trees and shrubs in the case study towns is very limited, but large areas of non-functional lawn could be available for planting. Lawn comprised the largest proportion of the urban surface cover in the case studies. The findings of the case studies were assembled into data sets relating to each type of urban zone and summed up in green structure maps based on geographical information systems. This approach can provide an overview of best practices to allow areas lacking vegetation cover to be identified. This assessment method can usefully be applied to incorporate issues related to the urban natural environment and urban greening potential into conventional planning practice in Denmark's municipalities.

Bittner,V.A., Hardter,U. (2003). Empirical reality and modelling of motivational conditions of informational forest-political instruments for the non-farming ownership of small-scale private forests. Allg Forst Jagdztg, 174, 137-148.

Keywords: intrinsic motivation; model of motivational acting; social change; modernisation; urbanisation; urban forest owners; consulting and support; small-scale private forest; environmental communication

Two research projects examined consultation and support of non-farming small-scale private forest owners as political instruments on the information level. Urban orientation as the explaining variable was used to estimate the effectiveness of current and future forest- policy programs. Due to this the experts of consultation and support as well as their clientele, the non-farming small-scale private forest owners, were analysed. It was possible to reconstruct the needs of the target group and to present a picture of today's consultation practise with the used study design. One subproject was accomplished by the Institut of forest policy and nature protection at the University of Gottingen in form of an expert-centered research design which uses qualitative methods of empirical social research. The second subproject was accomplished by the Institut of forest policy at the University of Freiburg. Within this project the clientele of non-farming owners of small- scaled private forests was examined by means of quantitative methods of empirical social research. Both research projects were closely co-ordinated and their common aspects of content were integrated into the used collection of instruments. As a result a multi- perspective view of the clientele of non-farming forest owners could be presented by using this approach based on division of labour. By designing and applying the scale,urban orientation'' (Fig. 1, Tab. 1) within the investigation an urban oriented type of forest owner could be identified which can be distinguished from other traditional forest owners regarding their motives concerning forest property. Also information was gained about the extent of current consulting and support concepts and how they affect non-farming forest owners. The empirical findings help to construct a model of motivational conditions (Fig. 2 and 3) for non-farming forest owners in the light of processes of consulting and support. The model can help to point out possibilities and limits for consultation and support of non-farming forest owners. Furthermore possible strategies to deal with urban forest owners can be derived to help within the decision making processes of forest policy and forest administration.

Bjorheden,R., Gullberg,T., Johansson,J. (2003). Systems analyses for harvesting small trees for forest fuel in urban forestry. Biomass Bioenerg, 24, 389-400.

Keywords: forest fuel; urban forestry; young stands; harvesting; cleaning; thinning; system analysis

Forests in urban areas are important for recreation. Social, aesthetic and recreational values are at least as important for forest management as economy and conventional forestry considerations. Systems with short, intensive harvesting phases and limited damage to ground and trees are also advantageous, in order to reduce disturbance through harvesting operations. Further, slash free stands constitute a more attractive environment for recreational activities. Forest fuel harvesting may provide these conditions. This study analyses the economic feasibility of harvesting forest fuel in dense, small diameter stands. The analyses are performed as simulated treatments in selected stand types. Both existing and non-existing forest fuel systems are tested. Conventional cleaning and conventional thinning for pulpwood are included as reference systems. The average dbh of removed trees varied between 3.0 and 10.5 cm. The potential yield of biomass in the studied stand types is high-under Swedish conditions over 35 tonnes dry substance per ha. Harvesting pulpwood exclusively means that only a small portion of the potential is utilised. Forest fuel systems based on motor-manual work are the most competitive in the smallest diameter stands. They break even from dbh similar to4.5 cm in birch stands and from similar to5.5 cm in pine. Simulated systems include a feller-chipper-forwarder and a two-machine system with a feller-bundler and a forwarder. Both are suitable for larger tree sizes than the manual methods. The conventional pulpwood method shows the poorest result, but start competing with the poorest forest-fuel systems from dbh similar to10 cm (removed trees).

Brack,C.L. (2002). Pollution mitigation and carbon sequestration by an urban forest. Environ Pollut, 116, S195-S200.

Keywords: carbon sequestration; urban forest; tree asset management; forest value

At the beginning of the 1900s, the Canberra plain was largely treeless. Graziers had carried out extensive clearing of the original trees since the 1820s leaving only scattered remnants and some plantings near homesteads. With the selection of Canberra as the site for the new capital of Australia, extensive tree plantings began in 1911. These trees have delivered a number of benefits, including aesthetic values and the amelioration of climatic extremes. Recently, however, it was considered that the benefits might extend to pollution mitigation and the sequestration of carbon. This paper outlines a case study of the value of the Canberra urban forest with particular reference to pollution mitigation. This study uses a tree inventory, modelling and decision support system developed to collect and use data about trees for tree asset management. The decision support system (DISMUT) was developed to assist in the management of about 400,000 trees planted in Canberra. The size of trees during the 5-year Kyoto Commitment Period was estimated using DISMUT and multiplied by estimates of value per square meter of canopy derived from available literature. The planted trees are estimated to have a combined energy reduction, pollution mitigation and carbon sequestration value of US$20-67 million during the period 2008-2012.

Carver,A.D., Unger,D.R., & Parks,C.L. (2004). Modeling energy savings from urban shade trees: An assessment of the CITYgreen(R) energy conservation module. Environ Manage, 34: (5). 650-655.

Keywords: energy savings; Geographic Information Systems; GIS; urban forest

CITYgreen(R) software has become a commonly used tool to quantify the benefits of urban shade trees. Despite its frequent use, little research has been conducted to validate results of the CITYgreen energy conservation module. The first objective of this study is to perform a familiar application of CITYgreen software to predict the potential energy savings contribution of existing tree canopies in residential neighborhoods during peak cooling summer months. Unlike previous studies utilizing CITYgreen, this study also seeks to assess the software's performance by comparing model results (i.e., predicted energy savings) with actual savings (i.e., savings derived directly from energy consumption data provided by the electric utility provider). Homeowners in an older neighborhood with established trees were found to use less energy for air-conditioning than homeowners in a recently developed site. Results from the assessment of model performance indicated that CITYgreen more accurately estimated the energy savings in the highly vegetated, older neighborhood.

Coles,R.W., Bussey,S.C. (2000). Urban forest landscapes in the UK - progressing the social agenda. Landscape Urban Plan, 52, 181-188.

Keywords: urban forestry; public; woodland perception; urban landscape

The work identifies and attempts to value urban woodlands according to their social significance to the user. Using questionnaires, interviews and focus groups, it examines the usage patterns and perceptions of the public to an urban forest complex. Results point towards the high social value of urban woods providing that they meet specific requirements and raise some fundamental issues regarding the location, size and structure of urban woodlands for everyday public use, the relationship between the communities and the woodlands that serve them and major differences between professional and public attitudes to woodlands. Findings point to a severe undervaluing of the social importance of woods by professionals in favour of general nature conservation guidelines which fail to recognise the nature of urban woodland/community interaction. Key parameters are that woodlands should be 5-10 min walk from the home, be of a suitable size to create a woodland environment (minimum of 2 ha) and have an open structure. Species was not a significant factor. Woodland interaction is highly personal where even 25- year old plantations are regarded as static long-term structures. As such, they are used as a context for a variety of life events and functions, where the relationship is defined by social parameters and social need, which are derived from the urban populations that they serve. To promote and establish an effective urban forestry strategy requires an understanding of these dimensions, however, any evidence for such an understanding among professionals was not found.

Edwards,K.K., Bliss,J.C. (2003). It's a neighborhood now - Practicing forestry at the urban fringe. J Forest, 101, 6-11.

Keywords: COMMUNICATION; public relations; urban forestry; wildland-urban interface; PUBLIC-ATTITUDES; MANAGEMENT; ONTARIO

Increasing land fragmentation, regulations, and neighbors' concerns pose significant challenges to forest owners at the urban fringe. Using Oregon's Soap CreekWatershed as a study site, we paired qualitative and quantitative methods to identify stakeholders, their opinions about forestry, and options for reducing conflict. Findings indicate that: (1) stakeholders viewed actively managed forests as preferable to further residential development, (2) residents held corporate and public forest managers to higher communication and management standards than individual private managers, and (3) consistently communicating management intentions and acknowledging neighbors' concerns reduced active opposition to forest management.

Foss,L.K., & Rieske,L.K. (2003). Species-specific differences in oak foliage affect preference and performance of gypsy moth caterpillars. Entomol Exp Appl, 108: (2). 87-93.

Keywords: HERBIVORY; Lymantria dispar; foliar chemistry; Quercus; urban forests; herbivore-plant interactions; Lepidoptera; LYMANTRIIDAE; DISPAR L LEPIDOPTERA; LYMANTRIA-DISPAR; TANNIN; DEFOLIATION; GROWTH; CONSUMPTION; suitability; phenolics; CHEMISTRY; NITROGEN

The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.) ( Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), is an introduced defoliator that preferentially feeds on oaks, Quercus spp. ( Fagaceae) in the north-eastern USA. As the gypsy moth expands its geographic range, the extensive oak component in forests and urban environments of the USA assure its successful establishment. Given their economic and ecological importance, and the gypsy moth's potential to cause mortality, we evaluated caterpillar preference and performance on various oaks prevalent in the central hardwoods region. Most of the physical and chemical characteristics we measured, from budbreak phenology to foliar chemistry, varied significantly among the oak species tested. Similarly, insect preference and performance varied significantly, though not always in predictable ways. Caterpillar preference was compared for black, Q. Velutina Lamarck, burr, Q. Macrocarpa Michaux, cherrybark, Q. Pagoda Rafinesque, northern red, Q. Rubra L., pin, Q. Palustris Muenchhausen, swamp white, Q. Bicolor Willdenow, white, Q. Alba L., and willow, Q. Phellos L., oaks. Gypsy moth preference was greatest for black and burr, and least for northern red, pin, and willow oaks. We assessed foliar characteristics and caterpillar performance on foliage from burr, cherrybark, northern red, pin, and willow oaks. Caterpillar preference did not always correlate with performance. Gypsy moth consumption and growth were highest, and development most rapid, on pin oak, which had high nitrogen and tannin levels, and was among the least preferred. Northern red and willow oaks were also among the least preferred and were the least suitable tested, producing caterpillars with moderate to low consumption and growth rates, as well as the longest development. Northern red oak contained the lowest foliar tannins; willow oak foliage was lowest in carbohydrates and nitrogen. Our results suggest that a combination of foliar characteristics may be responsible for gypsy moth preference and performance, and that an optimal combination of foliar components serves to maximize host suitability. These data will provide information useful for planning and managing urban forests in the presence of expanding gypsy moth populations.

GermannChiari,C., & Seeland,K. (2004). Are urban green spaces optimally distributed to act as places for social integration? Results of a geographical information system (GIS) approach for urban forestry research. Forest Policy Econ, 6: (1). 3-13.

Keywords: social integration; urban green spaces; urban forestry; geographical information system (GIS)

The objective of this ongoing research is to analyse the social potential of urban green spaces to create opportunities to integrate youths, elderly people, foreigners, unemployed and other social groups into the urban life of large Swiss agglomerations. Urban green- space data are linked with social demographic data for these particular social groups. Three large cities in the different language regions of Switzerland have been selected for a comparative study: Geneva (French-speaking), Lugano (Italian-speaking) and Zurich (German-speaking). The green-space data derived from vector25, the digital landscape model in a vector format of the Swiss Federal Office of Topography, and the social demographic data from the 1990 Swiss census are compiled for further processing with the geographical information systems ARCINFO and ARCVIEW. In this way, a contribution to the development of a GIS-based research methodology is made. The goal of this approach is to obtain a highly aggregated planning tool for urban forestry and green-space development.

HansenMoller,J., & Oustrup,L. (2004). Emotional, physical/functional and symbolic aspects of an urban forest in Denmark to nearby residents. Scand J Forest Res, 19:56-64.

Keywords: emotional; physical/functional; symbolic values; outdoor recreation; qualitative methodology; urban forestry

The decision by the Danish government to double the area of forestlands in a tree generation has prompted researchers to explore more thoroughly the significance of forests to people. In 2003, an exploratory, qualitative case study with in-depth interviews with 10% of the households next to an urban forest in a suburb in Denmark was conducted to investigate the emotional aspects of visiting a forested environment, the types of physical/functional activities pursued and the symbolic connotations of the forest. The research shows that the forest serves as a refuge for recharging at the emotional level, as a place for exercising more than for picnics functionally, and as nature more than a park symbolically. Afforestation is considered desirable in order to provide experiences of nature, especially for children. Based on these findings, implications for urban forest planning and management and for future research are discussed.

Chen,S.S., Jim,C.Y. (2003). Quantitative assessment of the treescape and cityscape of Nanjing, China. Landscape Ecol, 18, 395-412.

Keywords: cityscape; Nanjing; species diversity; treescape; urban forest; urban landscape; urban tree; URBAN FOREST STRUCTURE; HONG-KONG; LANDSCAPE; FLORA

The urban landscape is by nature the result of many cultural and natural factors and processes. Cityscape associated with land attributes and human activities expresses a city's social and economic functions. Treescape in the form of species composition, tree dimension and tree performance echoes ecological and environmental functions. The cityscape can be denoted by urban factors, such as tree growing-space condition, tree management regime, human activities and planting history. The hypothesis that the cityscape plays a key role in molding the treescape is tested. Nanjing, an east China city notable for its high tree coverage, is chosen as the study area. A quantitative method has been developed to assess the relationship between cityscape and treescape. Based on statistical analyses on the surveyed results of 6527 trees and related cityscape attributes, this paper explores the pertinent patterns and underlying factors of treescape variations. Species composition has the strongest association with cityscape. Roadside and factories have lower species diversity. Residential and industrial land uses show smaller tree dimension. Trees in residential, commercial, heavy industrial land-uses perform below par. A three- way classification has been developed to examine the effects of urban factors on treescape at different cityscape scales. At the small scale, a well-vegetated groundcover will ensure better tree performance and a lower management burden. The medium-scale cityscape (land-use and habitat) is preferred in the study of treescape attributes and their spatial variations, and is suitable for urban tree planning and management.

Jensen,R., Gatrell,J., Boulton,J., & Harper,B. (2004). Using remote sensing and geographic information systems to study urban quality of life and urban forest amenities. Ecol Soc, 9: (5). U1-U10.

Keywords: leaf area index; remote sensing; urban forestry; urban quality of life; LEAF-AREA INDEX; environmental justice; ECONOMIC-DEVELOPMENT; OUTDOOR RECREATION; EXPANSION METHOD; VEGETATION; CALIFORNIA; PROGRAMS; DISTANCE; MODELS

This study examines urban quality of life by assessing the relationship between observed socioeconomic conditions and urban forest amenities in Terre Haute, Indiana, USA. Using remote-sensing methods and techniques, and ordinary least squares regression, the paper determines the relationship between urban leaf area and a population density parameter with median income and median housing value. Results demonstrate positive correlations between urban leaf area, population density, and their interaction with median income and median housing value. Furthermore, leaf area, density, and their interaction statistically account for observed variance in median income and median housing value, indicating that these variables may be used to study observed quality-of-life metrics. The methods used in this study may be useful to city managers, planners, and foresters who are concerned with urban quality-of-life issues, and who are interested in developing and implementing alternative policy assessment regimes.

Jim,C.Y. (2001). Managing urban trees and their soil envelopes in a contiguously developed city environment. ENVIRON MANAGE, 28, 819-832.

Keywords: urban tree; urban soil; urban greenery; urban forestry; amenity vegetation; tree management; town plan; HONG-KONG; GROWTH

Urban Hong Kong is covered by high building, road, and population densities. Its urban morphology is inherently not conducive to extensive or high-grade greening. Recent renewal of old areas has squeezed out some limited interstitial plantable space, although in new development areas modest spaces have been earmarked for greenery, The study aims at evaluating the major constraints to urban trees and their companion urban soil envelopes and at providing specific recommendations to improve tree management in the city. The analysis covers the above-ground confinements that dampen tree performance, the less tangible but rather difficult institutional restrictions that impose a somewhat unnecessary lid on tree planting, the multiplicity of players and stakeholders involved in urban-tree management that militates against coordination and cooperation, the widespread occupation of underground space by utility lines often to the exclusion of trees, and the extremely poor quality of urban soils that are often used without amelioration to support tree growth. The management recommendations furnish practical suggestions and hints to improve the short- and long- term welfare of trees in terms of quality, quantity, and spatial distribution. The conclusion enumerates some concrete measures for consideration by decision-makers to upgrade the city's greenery to close the gap between science and policy.

Jim,C.Y. (2002). Heterogeneity and differentiation of the tree flora in three major land uses in Guangzhou City, China. ANN FOR SCI, 59, 107-118.

Keywords: urban forest; urban tree; species diversity; species association; tree management

The tree flora of humid-tropical Guangzhou city in south China was studied to understand its composition and variations. Aerial photographs identified three major urban-forest types in three land uses: institutional, park and roadside. Data on 115 064 trees in 246 species were statistically analyzed. Park and roadside areas have lower species richness than institutional forest. Park habitat has relatively more rooms for species, biomass and floral enrichment. Roadside leads in tree density with full utilization of plantable space, whereas institutional forest has the highest species density index and the most rare natives. Commonality of species amongst forests limits to 91 species, with park and institutional sharing 68 species, and road sharing merely 8 and 1 species respectively with institutional and park. Institutional forest has distinct composition and character, with less domination by popular species and more solitary or rare species. Native species exceed exotics at roadside; institutional and park have a reverse trend. Practical implications for urban-forest management are discussed.

Jim,C.Y. (2004). Evaluation of heritage trees for conservation and management in Guangzhou City (China). Environ Manage, 33: (1). 74-86.

Keywords: URBAN TREES; urban forest; heritage trees; tree evaluation; tree conservation; tree management; Guangzhou; China; LAND; vegetation; PROTECTION; DAMAGE

The recent fast pace of urbanization in China and other developing countries has exerted pressure on urban trees, which constitute a key urban environmental asset. The most outstanding trees should be treated as natural-cumcultural heritage. Guangzhou City's growth has threatened its rich urban-tree endowment, a diversified assemblage of 200,000 trees represented by 254 species and located in three major habitats: roadside, park, and institutional grounds. Mainly based on age and performance, 348 trees were officially designated as heritage specimens. They were evaluated in the field for tree dimensions, habitat, performance, and landscape contribution, to establish enhanced conservation and management strategies. With only 25 species, heritage trees were dominated by five cultivated natives and encompass some of the city's rare species; some common urban-forest species were not represented. Older districts and roadside habitats, despite their compact town plan and limited growing space, had the largest tree dimensions and largest share of heritage trees. Many heritage trees were large with long life expectancy and the potential for biomass expansion, and had pivotal cityscape impacts where they occur. Old neighborhoods, traditional haven for the arborescent treasure, are being changed by construction activities and periodic typhoon and windstorm damages. Increasing development density could degrade the heritage trees and their growing space, and reduce tree quality and life span. Upgrading the statutory-administrative systems and arboricultural care can enhance long-term survival of the precious natural-cum-cultural heritage. The experience of Guangzhou in identifying and preserving its high-quality urban trees can provide management strategies for other cities.

Jim,C.Y. (2004). Spatial differentiation and landscape-ecological assessment of heritage trees in urban Guangzhou (China). Landscape Urban Plan, 69: (1). 51-68.

Keywords: URBAN TREES; urban forest; heritage trees; landscape assessment; tree conservation; Guangzhou; China; CITY; FOREST; PROTECTION; DAMAGE

Recent rapid urbanization of Guangzhou in south China has degraded its rich urban-tree endowment, scattered in roadside, park, and public and semi-public grounds. Based mainly on age, 384 outstanding trees of 25 species were officially designated as heritage specimens. They were evaluated in the field for tree dimensions and habitat types to establish landscape-ecological impacts and spatial differentiation by districts and landuses. To aid the analysis, new quantitative indices were developed, namely landscape-ecological value (LEV), biomass-landscape congruence (BLC), and species spatial differentiation (SSD), respectively, for species presence, abundance, fidelity and clustering. Cultivated natives and five common species dominated heritage trees, accompanied by 11 rare and 9 single ones. Comparisons between the urban- and the heritage-tree populations, and between the LEV of individual species, indicated the uniqueness of heritage species composition and relative landscape-ecological contributions of species groups. Tree count, LEV and species diversity increased markedly with district age, culminating in the second oldest district and then declined somewhat in the oldest; species richness peaked in the mature district and dropped in the old and oldest. Older districts had a narrow range of similarly stressful habitats accommodating mainly inherited old trees; mature districts had more diversified habitats and a dual provenance of inheritance plus recent recruits; young districts had few of both types. Stressful roadside landuse was dominated by tree count, but it was poor in species diversity and richness, and had a rather monotonous native-foliage character. Park provided ample opportunities for a complex species cohort of disparate geographical origin, dimension, age, and amenity function, but its species diversity fell short of expectations. The public and semi-public grounds harboured mainly common species except religious grounds which had higher species diversity and some notably large and unique trees. BLC and SSD results echoed the differential operation of environmental and human influences on tree biomass, configuration and landscape impacts, resulting in notable variations between districts and landuses. The management implications of the results and prognosis for the future of urban heritage trees were explored with reference to Guangzhou and other cities.

Jim,C.Y. (2005). Floristics, performance and prognosis of historical trees in the urban forest of Guangzhou City (China). Environ Monit Assess, 102: (1-3). 285-308.

Keywords: urban trees; urban forest; historical trees; tree habitat; tree performance; tree protection; Guangzhou; CHINA; private land; CONSERVATION; PROTECTION; DAMAGE

Outstanding historical trees embedded in cities constitute pertinent environmental assets, yet they are widely threatened in third-world cities. Inadequate understanding of this valuable natural-cum- cultural heritage hinders proper conservation. A case study of Guangzhou in south China evaluated floristic composition, age profile and biomass structure of historical trees, assessed their performance in major habitats (institutional, park and roadside), and established a prognosis for future growth and management. The 348 historical trees examined belonged to only 25 species, vis-a-vis 254 trees in the entire urban forest, dominated by five species and native members. Roadside had more trees, followed by institutional and park, with merely the most common four species shared by all habitats. The limited commonality reflected tree-performance differentiation by habitats exerting selection pressure on species. The institutional growth-regime was more conducive to nurturing high-caliber specimens, whereas park is less capable. Individual species achievement by habitats, derived from tree-count ranking and relative-abundance indices, could inform species choice and tree conservation. Few trees exceeded 300 years of age in the millennium-old city, echoing a history of intense tree-city conflicts. Potential life-span, trunk and crown diameters indicated ample opportunities for further expansion of biomass and landscape impacts, which would be straitjacketed by the tightening urban fabric.

Jim,C.Y. (2005). Monitoring the performance and decline of heritage trees in urban Hong Kong. J Environ Manage, 74: (2). 161-172.

Keywords: urban tree; urban forestry; urban ecology; heritage tree; tree protection; compact city; Hong kong; soil characteristics; CITY; PROTECTION; FOREST; CHINA; LAND

Urban trees in Hong Kong exist in stressful and harsh habitat conditions due mainly to the exceptionally high-density development mode. This study focuses on the cream of the urban tree stock, the heritage trees, which were selected according to five sets of stringent criteria: species, dimension, structure, condition, location, and special considerations. The study area covers the main urban core of the city. The loss of trees in two periods, 1993-1998 and 1999-2003, was monitored, with the predisposing and direct causes of damages ascertained as far as possible. Of the 380 heritage specimens, 54 trees were lost in the survey period. The main predisposing causes were injuries sustained in roadwork and construction activities, both related to root damage and soil disturbance. The principal direct causes were recent gradual decline and abrupt demise due to typhoon breakage. Three pairs of contributing variables registered statistically significant associations (chi(2) test), namely predisposing cause versus direct cause, tree growth form versus direct cause, and survey period versus direct cause. Principal component analysis identified three factors that explained 70% of the variance, namely tree form, tree stature, and growth environment. The main reasons for the high mortality were explored. The possible applications of the findings to improve tree protection and management were discussed in relation to the overall planning for meritorious greenery and green space especially in compact cities.

Jim,C.Y., Liu,H.T. (2001). Species diversity of three major urban forest types in Guangzhou City, China. Forest Ecol Manage, 146, 99-114.

Keywords: urban forest; roadside forest; park forest; institutional forest; species diversity; Guangzhou; HONG-KONG; TREES

Guangzhou city in South China was assessed to understand the associations between tree species diversity and urban development. The study area covers five urban districts which form the bulk of the built-up areas. Reconnaissance field trips and aerial photograph survey identified main green covers in three urban-forest types, namely roadside niches, urban parks. and institutional grounds. Trees at roadsides and 21 parks were censused, whereas 14 large institutional sites were sampled. A total of 115,140 trees were evaluated for species identification, dimensions and site-environs conditions, with 40.8% at roadsides, 38.2% in parks, and 21.0% in institutional grounds. The urban forests composed of 254 species in 62 botanical families led by Moraceae, Caesalpiniaceae and Myrtaceae. Institutional forest has the highest diversity, followed by park and roadside trees. Most trees are derived from a small group of dominant species. Broadleaf species are prominent, especially the evergreen, whereas conifers and palms are sparingly adopted, except palms in institutional areas. Exotic species, mainly originating from tropical Asia and Australia, are common but not as dominating as in other tropical cities. Native species include spontaneous invasion into ruderal habitats, especially in parks. Species composition was interpreted vis-a-vis the interplay of natural and cultural factors then and now. Changing site conditions (geometric vs. physiological attributes), decision-making and management regimes (official-public vs. individual-lot stewardship), funding constraint (straitjacketed vs. adequate), intended amenity functions, and evolving landscape fashion (traditional vs, innovative), have helped to mould respective species assemblages to define their identity. Implications for long-term tree planning and management in Guangzhou and other fast developing cities are explored.

Kenney,W.A. (2003). A strategy for Canada's urban forests. Forest Chron, 79, 785-789.

Keywords: urban forest; STRATEGY; community action; interdisciplinary relations; policy; professional development; research; planning

Urban forests are where 80% of Canadians live and work and, as such, represent their most intimate contact with their natural environment. The trees and woodlands in and around our cities and towns provide a broad range of environmental and socio-economic benefits to society. A recent survey in Ontario indicates that urbanites in that province not only consider their urban forests to be very important to them; they are also concerned about their conservation and management. A strategy for a collaborative, sustained, and nationally based effort to advance urban forestry in Canada is presented under the themes of community action, interdisciplinary relations, policy, professional development, research, and urban forests and planning.

Konijnendijk,C.C. (2000). Adapting forestry to urban demands - role of communication in urban forestry in Europe. Landscape Urban Plan, 52, 89-100.

Keywords: urbanisation; forests; urban forestry; communication; EUROPE

Similar to other parts of the world, European society is becoming increasingly urban, both in a physical as in an economic and socio-cultural sense. As a result. the relationships between society and nature, including forests. are changing, and forestry as structural intervention in forest ecosystems has had to adapt itself to changing societal pressures and demands. The planning and managing of woodlands in and near urban areas has been the most directly affected by the urbanisation process. Many European countries have a long tradition of 'town forestry', serving as basis for current developments in urban forestry, i.e. the planning and management of all forest and tree resources in and near urban areas for the benefit of local society. Through the adaptation to the specific demands of local urban societies, a type of forestry has emerged which is structurally different from classic forestry. It focuses, for example, on the social and environmental values of urban woodlands rather than on wood production and emphasising the importance of communication -ranging from information to participation/power sharing between stakeholders. This paper investigates ways to communicate urban forests and forestry to urban inhabitants and other stakeholders, based on results of a comparative study of main European cities. It explores the role which urban forestry has been playing in the development of forestry at large, especially with regards to better incorporating changing social values and interests.

Konijnendijk,C.C. (2003). A decade of urban forestry in Europe. Forest Policy Econ, 5, 173-186.

Keywords: urban forestry; urbanisation; forest science; FOREST POLICY; EUROPE

Major changes in society have led to a call for structural changes in forestry, also in Europe. Urbanisation as one of the major driving forces has had a clear impact on European forestry. One of the new approaches emerging in response is the concept of urban forestry. It was developed in North America during the 1960s as innovative approach to managing natural resources in urban environments. Aimed at the integrated planning and management of all tree-based resources in cities and towns, the concept found broad support in North America after initial resistance from both foresters and urban green professionals. Similar resistance was met in Europe, and here it took until the early 1990s before the concept of urban forestry found broader acceptance and support. Since then, a European urban forestry research community has emerged, as have policies, programmes and higher education incorporating elements of urban forestry. Urban forest resources in Europe might be small in relative terms compared to other natural resources. They do, however, cover millions of hectares of land and provide multiple, highly demanded goods and services. Forestry can benefit from urban forestry experiences and innovations, for example in terms of better meeting the expectations and demands of urban society. Urban forestry, on the other hand, is firmly rooted in some of the basic concepts of traditional forestry, such as sustained yield. Review of a decade of urban forestry in Europe shows that strong links should be maintained for the benefit of both.

Konijnendijk,C.C. (2004). Enhancing the forest science-policy interface in Europe: Urban forestry showing the way. Scand J Forest Res, 19:123-128.

Keywords: EUROPE; forest science policy interface; good practice; urban forestry; urbanization

The demands of a modern, urbanizing society require a paradigm shift within forestry. More cross-sectoral, participatory, multidisciplinary approaches have been called for, as well as better integration between science, policy and implementation. The concept of urban forestry was developed in response to these demands. It has its roots in practice, as North American green management practitioners called for integrated approaches to deal with the challenges of modern cities. Through the involvement of federal and state governments in policy, science and implementation, a strong science-policy interface has been created in American urban forestry. Although policy-science links in urban forestry have so far been weaker in Europe, examples of good practice exist. Sound information systems to support decision making in planning and management have been developed. For the appropriate dissemination of research findings, the first knowledge brokers have started to play an important role. Finally, networks of urban forestry policy makers, managers and scientists have been instrumental in defining research needs.

KostelHughes, F., Young, T.P., & Wehr, J.D. (2005). Effects of leaf litter depth on the emergence and seedling growth of deciduous forest tree species in relation to seed size. J Torrey Bot Soc, 132: (1). 50-61.

Keywords: GERMINATION; recruitment; REGENERATION; urban forests; non-native species; PLANT LITTER; tropical forest; NATURAL REGENERATION; WOODY SEEDLINGS; RAIN-FOREST; OLD FIELDS; soil; ESTABLISHMENT; VEGETATION

Leaf litter has a major impact on soil microenvironmental conditions and so can be an important influence on seedling recruitment and hence plant community structure. We conducted a greenhouse experiment to examine the impact of leaf litter from temperate deciduous forests on the emergence and growth of tree seedlings in relation to seed size. Our treatments were bare (no litter), shallow (1-2 cm deep, 140 g circle m(-2)), and deep (ca. 5 cm deep, 420 g circle m(-2)) litter. Seed sizes ranged from 0.7-3636 mg. For Betula lenta (seed mass = 0.7 mg), emergence on bare soil was greater than 50%, approximately 12% in shallow litter, and no emergence in deep litter. Percent emergence for Liquidambar styracifiua (seed mass = 6 mg) was highest in bare soil and shallow litter treatments (64-69%) and was reduced by more than 80% in the deep litter treatment. Ailanthus altissima (seed mass = 30 mg) and Quercus velutina (seed mass = 1900 mg) exhibited no significant differences in emergence among litter depth treatments whereas, for Quercus rubra (seed mass = 3636 mg), percent emergence was over 50% greater under deep litter than under shallow litter. Seedling growth also differed in response to the litter treatments. For the two smallest-seeded species, B. Lenta and L. Styraciflua, seedling robustness (aboveground biomass divided by seedling height) was greatest in the bare treatment. Seedling robustness of Q. Velutina decreased with increased litter depth while Q. Rubra had its greatest seedling robustness in the shallow litter treatment. For A. Altissima, seedling robustness and root:shoot ratio both decreased with increased litter depth. Our results suggest that the two smallest-seeded species are better adapted to colonizing post- disturbance sites where there is likely to be less litter, whereas the two largest-seeded oak species are better-suited to establishing in forests with a thicker litter layer. This is consistent with the communities in which these species typically are found. The enhanced seedling growth of A.altissima in bare-to-shallow litter conditions may be one of the attributes that accounts for the success of this highly invasive non-native species in urban forests in the New York City metropolitan area which have shallower litter than nearby rural forests.

Li, F., Wang, R.S., Liu, X.S., & Zhang, X.L. (2005). Urban forest in China: Development patterns, influencing factors and research prospects. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol, 12: (2). 197-204.

Keywords: urban forest; green space; development pattern; urban planning; MANAGEMENT; CHINA; ecosystem services; RESOURCES; VALUES; TREES

Urban forest is a very important part of urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, aesthetically, recreationally and economically. This article reviews the development status, development patterns and influencing factors of urban forest in China. There are four typical development patterns of urban forest in China: the forest city, garden city, ecological economics and forest greenbelt. Social, climatic, economic and other factors influence urban forest development in China. Social factors include government behaviour, laws and regulations, science and technology, education and Culture, public awareness and participation, ecological planning and management. Climatic factors include rainfall, temperature and Sunlight. Economic factors include urban economic level and funding for urban forest. In future, government, NGOs and the private sector should be considered more in the planning and management of urban forest. The social, climatic and economic factors should be taken into account when improving urban forest management. Research on urban forest from the academic and the management viewpoint should he Strengthened. This can improve the development and management Of Urban forest in China and in other developing Countries.

Lohr, V.I., & PearsonMims, C.H. (2005). Children's active and passive interactions with plants influence their attitudes and actions toward trees and gardening as adults. Horttechnology, 15: (3). 472-476.

Keywords: benefits of trees; community forestry; environment; human issues in horticulture; human well-being; people-plant interactions; response to nature; survey; urban forestry; youth

A nationwide phone survey of attitudes toward urban trees, participation in civic or educational activities, and memories of childhood experiences with gardening and nature was conducted with 2004 adults in large urban areas. We analyzed the influence of 11 childhood experiences and five adult demographic characteristics on three items: ''Trees in cities help people feel calmer,'' ''Do trees have a particular personal, symbolic, or spiritual meaning to you?'' and ''During the past year, have you participated in a class or program about gardening?'' Growing up next to natural elements such as flower beds, visiting parks, taking environmental classes, and gardening during childhood were associated with stronger adult attitudes and more actions. Growing up next to urban elements, such as large buildings, had a small, but opposite, influence. Demographics played a role in adult attitudes and actions. While both passive and active interactions with plants during childhood were associated with positive adult values about trees, the strongest influence came from active gardening, such as picking flowers or for children raised in urban surroundings with few or no plants can be effective in fostering an appreciation for gardening in adults.

Millard,A. (2000). The potential role of natural colonisation as a design tool for urban forestry - a pilot study. Landscape Urban Plan, 52, 173-179.

Keywords: urban forest; natural colonisation; biodiversity; amenity

Traditionally, the establishment of urban trees and forests has involved some element of deliberate design, which includes, at the very least, selection of location and species. followed by planting and subsequent maintenance. However, the ecological stresses of the urban environment can often cause such an approach to end in failure. In contrast, natural colonisation will select only those plants that are adapted to survive in the urban environment. This paper reports on a pilot study of some naturally colonised urban sites in Leeds and examines the potential contribution such processes can make to the urban landscape. Dominant woody species are identified and discussed in relation to their provision of amenity, support of biodiversity, modification of urban microclimate and amelioration of air pollution to help establish the benefits and disadvantages of naturally established woody vegetation as part of an overall urban forestry strategy.

Nowak,D.J., Crane,D.E. (2002). Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environ Pollut, 116, 381-389.

Keywords: global climate change; carbon dioxide; urban forestry; CARBON STORAGE; carbon sequestration; forests

Based on field data from 10 USA cities and national urban tree cover data, it is estimated that urban trees in the coterminous USA currently store 700 million tonnes of carbon ($14,300 million value) with a gross carbon sequestration rate of 22.8 million tC/yr ($460 million/year). Carbon storage within cities ranges from 1.2 million tC in New York, NY, to 19,300 tC in Jersey City, NJ. Regions with the greatest proportion of urban land are the Northeast (8.5%) and the southeast (7.1%). Urban forests in the north central, northeast, south central and southeast regions of the USA store and sequester the most carbon, with average carbon storage per hectare greatest in southeast, north central, northeast and Pacific northwest regions, respectively. The national average urban forest carbon storage density is 25.1 tC/ha, compared with 53.5 tC/ha in forest stands. These data can be used to help assess the actual and potential role of urban forests in reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas.

Nowak,D.J., Noble,M.H., Sisinni,S.M., Dwyer,J.F. (2001). People & trees - Assessing the US urban forest resource. J Forest, 99, 37-42.

Keywords: inventory; urban forestry; TIMBER

Urban areas in the conterminous United States doubled in size between 1969 and 1994, and currently cover 3.5 percent of the total land area and contain more than 75 percent of the US population. Urban areas contain approximately 3.8 billion trees with an average tree canopy cover of 27 percent. The extent and variation of urban forests across the 48 states are explored to help build a better understanding of this significant national resource. Urbanization and urban forests are likely to be a significant focus of forestry in the 21 st century.

Rawlinson, H., Dickinson, N., Nolan, P., & Putwain, P. (2004). Woodland establishment on closed old-style landfill sites in NW England. Forest Ecol Manage, 202: (1-3). 265-280.

Keywords: community forestry; Brownfield; RECLAMATION; urban forestry; GROWTH; soil; VEGETATION; leachate

A large-scale field experiment on 11 closed old-style landfill sites aims to identify the constraints to tree survival and growth, and the opportunity for restoration to community forestry. This paper analyses survival and growth during the first 3 years. A preliminary site investigation showed that the main environmental constraints to tree growth were soil depth, site exposure, soil compaction, waterlogging and low soil oxygen. None of the sites were suitable for forestry according to current guidelines. Thirty-nine plots (mostly 40 m x 40 m) at the 11 landfill sites were each planted with 21 woody species, amounting to 8 ha of experimental plots within 14 ha of buffer zone planting. All planting stock was of the same origin, planted at the same time in a randomised-block design. Despite herbicide applications, weed competition had the largest inhibitory effect on establishment in the first year. Patterns of survival and growth were contradictory; often species with poor survival rates grew well and vice versa. The most successful species were late successional species (compared to pioneers), native species (compared to exotics), shrubs (compared to trees) and broadleaves (compared to conifers). Eight of the 21 species could be recommended to be good general choices for landfill sites. It is concluded that all sites were suitable for community forestry, although two sites would require additional soil amendment. Species recommendations to suit a particular range of environmental determinants at other landfill sites is complicated by the mound-like shape of landfills and a high degree of within-site and within-plot variability; this was a more important determinant of mortality and growth than was the particular species planted. Differences between plots were reflected in mortality data, whereas growth data separated differences between species. Monitoring of the plots and further experimental work at the sites will continue for at least 15 years.

Ricard, R.M. (2005). Shade trees and tree wardens: Revising the history of urban forestry. J Forest, 103: (5). 230-233.

Keywords: HISTORY; LAW; policy; urban forestry

The contributions that urban forestry has made to society have been increasing over the past two decades. The profession has its origins, as does forestry and other natural resource professions, in the first conservation era of the late 1800s. Tree warden laws are some of the earliest and most important urban forestry laws passed by state legislatures. The importance of public shade frees was recognized by amateur forestry activists, and public sentimentality for shade trees was used strategically by these activists as a forest policy persuasion tool

Roovers,P., Hermy,M., Gulinck,H. (2002). Visitor profile, perceptions and expectations in forests from a gradient of increasing urbanisation in central Belgium. Landscape Urban Plan, 59, 129-145.

Keywords: RECREATION; urban forestry; questionnaires; UK

The forest complex of Heverlee-Meerdaal, which consists of two forest parts, is located on a gradient from a rural region to an expanding urban area, Its vicinity to the city of Leuven and the adjacent conurbation leads to intense recreational use by the inhabitants. By means of counts an interpretation on congestion and on spreading of visitors in time and space in the area was made. On the basis of these counts questionnaires were carried out in the forest throughout the whole year and among all activity groups. In this context, little is known in depth about the interaction between the structural characteristics of the recreation site and recreation patterns in particular. The questionnaires deal with socio-demographical characteristics of the visitors, preferences and perceptions of the respective activity groups and their interpretation of the forest area concerning structure and infrastructure. According to this study, the geographical distribution of the visitors in the forest is highly determined by the position of the forest along a gradient relative to the conurbation. A total of 69% of the visitors lives within a radius of 10 km and almost 38% originates from Leuven itself. Therefore, it can be considered to be an urban forest. The preferred activity is walking, followed successively by biking and jogging. Most of the people visit the forest on their own. Visit frequency and length are negatively correlated and strongly determined by the distance covered from the residence to the forest. Preferences and perceptions are influenced not only by social characteristics but also by the recreation activities and their specific interests and demands. The overall quality of the visit to the forest complex is evaluated very positive.

Ruliffson,J.A., Gobster,P.H., Haight,R.G., Homans,F.R. (2002). Niches in the urban forest: Organizations and their role in acquiring metropolitan open space. J Forest, 100, 16-23.

Keywords: open space; urban forestry; urbanization

As a response strategy to minimize the impacts of urban sprawl, public and private organizations are striving to acquire open lands that will contribute to a resilient and multifunctional urban forest. In the Chicago metropolitan region, we interviewed representatives of 15 organizations to understand the land acquisition process-the structures and functions of groups involved, their acquisition goals, and the cooperation among groups as they work to build metropolitan green infrastructure. Our findings reveal strength in diversity-a variety of groups working at different levels with complementary goals can help meet the complex challenges of land protection in rapidly urbanizing areas.

Schmithusen,F., Wildeck,S. (2000). Uses and perceptions of forests by people living in urban areas -findings from selected empirical studies. Forstwiss Centralbl, 119, 395-408.

Keywords: urban forests; forest management; perception of forests; empirical social research; urban development

The paper is based on a selection of empirical studies undertaken in Switzerland, Germany and France on the social meaning of forests. Relevant results from this research are used in order to discuss the intensity) and variety of urban forest uses; to give indications about preferred forest areas and about the ways and means to reach them; and to analyse the motives of visitors as well as the meanings that the public attributes to forests. The findings, based on a limited number of specific cases, give an indication with regard to the intensity of use and the range of statements about perceptions associated with forests. The conclusions examine the relevance of applied social research to multipurpose forest management, that reacts to changing demands of the public.

Schraml,U., Hardter,U. (2002). Urbanity of forest owners and people without forest property. Conclusions from an opinion poll in Germany. Allg Forst Jagdztg, 173, 140-146.

Keywords: urban forest owners; forest policy; forest policy sciences; social change; urbanisation; GERMANY

The ownership of forest property is an important criteria to distinguish different interest groups in forest policy. Particularly, the division between the interests of forest-owners and other citizens is commonly used. However, recent studies -documenting the existence of owners not exercising their legal power over their forest - question the validity of this division. Especially, the so-called 'urban forest- owners' are doubted to actually value the central function of their forests. Against this background, the authors of this paper compare forest-owners and non- forest-owners. The study is based on a phone survey of 248 forest-owners and 2570 non-forest-owners all over Germany. The term ''urbanity'' is explained theoretically and in turn applied to the object of the study. Information is compared about important social structures the interviewees live in (like size of the town or number of persons per household), about forest related behaviour (e.g. recreation, timber utilisation) and about the attitude concerning use of timber (Tab. 1 to 5). It can be demonstrated that forest-owners tend to live in smaller towns and in households with a higher number of persons (Tab. 1). Furthermore, the forest has a higher relevance to their individual life-style and forest-owners differ in their attitude towards forest- utilisation in comparison to the average of the population (Tab. 2 and 3). At the same time however, it becomes apparent that a certain group of urban forest- owners - which varies in size depending on the underlying definition of urbanity - hardly can be distinguished from non-forest-owners. As these people do not life only in urban areas, the popular hypothesis claiming that forest-ownership plays a less significant role for city-dwellers than for country-siders can be falsified using the collected data. Based on these results, the authors of this paper deduce proposals for the communication between forestry and other social subsystems as well as for the research concerning small-scale-forestry.

Simson,A.J. (2000). The post-romantic landscape of Telford New Town. Landscape Urban Plan, 52, 189-197.

Keywords: urbanisation; Telford New Town; urban forestry; post-romantic; landscape structure; image

As urbanisation proceeds at an ever-increasing rate across Europe, the demand for a ''quality of urban lift'' also increases. Rapid urban development is not a new phenomenon, and this paper reflects upon the product of an earlier phase of such development in Telford New Town, UK. It focuses on the design and early management of the landscape/urban forestry structure of the town. and the lessons that can be learned from its ''post-romantic'' landscape. This paper concludes with an argument for improving the image and marketing of the urban forestry approach to urban green-space design. deemed essential if it is to be to the mainstay of the success of future large scale urban development.

Tyrvainen,L. (2001). Economic valuation of urban forest benefits in Finland. J Environ Manage, 62, 75-92.

Keywords: amenity values; CONTINGENT VALUATION; ECONOMIC VALUE; green space benefits; urban forestry; CONTINGENT-VALUATION; AMENITIES; DISCRETE

Urban development projects may cause loss of amenity values of green areas, which should be taken into consideration in planning. Therefore, quantitative information on residents' valuation concerning urban forests is needed for assessing urban land use. The purpose of this investigation was to study the valuation of urban forests in two different urban environments Joensuu and Sale, Finland. The aims were to study the attitudes towards and benefits related to the use of urban forests and, in particular, to measure the valuations in monetary terms using contingent valuation, i.e. measure the residents' willingness-to-pay for larger wooded recreation areas and for small forested parks. Urban forests were seen in both towns as clearly producing positive benefits rather than causing negative effects. The negative features of forests were related to the management of the areas rather than their existence. The main values were related to nature and social functions of forests. In contrast, timber production achieved a distinctively low priority in both study towns. The results stress the importance of defining urban forest policies for municipalities in Finland. More than two-thirds of the respondents were willing to pay for the use of recreation areas. Good location and active management raised the average WTP. Moreover, approximately half of the respondents were willing to pay for preventing construction in urban forests. The results also show that the monetary value of amenity benefits in recreation areas is much higher than the present maintenance costs. The examples concerning the advantageousness of construction on green areas suggest that a limit could be found where the infill of housing areas is not worthwhile from the point of view of society, if the losses of green space benefits are taken into account.

Watson, W.T. (2005). Influence of tree size on transplant establishment and growth. Horttechnology, 15: (1). 118-122.

Keywords: urban trees; urban forestry; arboriculture; tree planting; TREE GROWTH; root ball

Studies have demonstrated that the size of transplanted trees has a measurable impact on establishment rates in the landscape. Larger trees require a longer period of time than smaller trees to produce a root system comparable in spatial distribution to similar sized non- transplanted trees. This lag in redevelopment of root system architecture results in reduced growth that increases with transplant size. Research has demonstrated that smaller transplanted trees become established more quickly and ultimately result in larger trees in the landscape in a few years. Additional studies dispute these findings. This paper provides a review of current research on the effect of tree size on transplant establishment.

Wikler,K., Storer,A.J., Newman,W., Gordon,T.R., Wood,D.L. (2003). The dynamics of an introduced pathogen in a native Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) forest. Forest Ecol Manage, 179, 209-221.

Keywords: urban forest; forest pathology; plant epidemiology; fungal pathogen; exotic microbe; PITCH CANKER; Fusarium circinatum; F-SP PINI; PITCH CANKER PATHOGEN; FUSARIUM-SUBGLUTINANS; CALIFORNIA; BEETLES; FUNGUS

The plant pathogenic fungus, Fusarium circinatum, is the cause of a major epidemic of pitch canker in urban forests of Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) in California. This pathogen is now also well established in all three mainland, native populations of Monterey pine where it causes conspicuous branch die-back and, frequently in association with native bark beetles, increased tree mortality. In the present study, permanent plots were established on the Monterey peninsula to characterize the severity and progress of pitch canker in the largest of the native P. radiata populations. The results indicate that the disease is significantly more severe, and is progressing more rapidly, in managed stands than in the wildland areas. Furthermore, the disease is progressing significantly faster in the coastal zone than in more inland locations.

Ziegenspeck, S., Hardter, U., & Schraml, U. (2004). Lifestyles of private forest owners as an indication of social change. Forest Policy Econ, 6: (5). 447-458.

Keywords: lifestyles; farm foresters; urban foresters; derivation of prognoses; GERMANY

Research about small scale forest owners is often dominated by a focus on forest owner's professions. The sources of their income are expected to explain why people use their forest in the way they do it. Studies throughout Central Europe show that only a minority of the forest owners are still full-time farmers. Due to the increased mobility, many forest owners now live in cities, where they are engaged urban lifestyles. The use of the forests by such urban- oriented forest owners might be better explained by the specific features of such urban lifestyles rather than the classical features of income and social status. Therefore, the article describes the lifestyle concept in a theoretical way and gives an outlook on the assumed situation of forest owners in Germany. It is discussed whether better understanding of forest owner lifestyles may promote policy extension within the forestry sector. Empirical evidence is drawn from two studies in the German state of Baden-Wuerttemberg about the effect of changes in lifestyles on forest management. The first study analyses characteristics of one specific lifestyle, the farm forest owners in the Central Black Forest. It describes almost homogeneous social structures characterised by the identification via profession, roots in the region, low mobility and a high demand for independence. On the basis of some examples, a possibility to derive prognoses from the data is suggested. Furthermore the output of the study is compared with the results of a survey that covered the situation of small scale forest owners in a much large c area integrating urban and rural regions. This second study gains a general overview on forest owner lifestyles in Baden-Wuerttemberg. It aims to classify forest owners by their urban orientation. The characteristics that were selected for the construction of a specific scale of urban orientation illustrate the extent in which their lifestyles can be considered as being urban-based. Therefore, the lifestyle 'full-time farm forester' can be compared with others with respect to the size of the group, its homogeneity and the average degree of urbanity.

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